北京交通大学 2011年硕士研究生入学考试试题
科目代码：610科目名称：语言学与英美文学 共5页 第1页
注意事项：答案一律写在答题纸上，写在试卷上的不予装订和评分！
Linguistics, British and American Literature
（试题共分两大部分：语言学和英美文学。总分150份，每个大部分各75分）
Part One: Linguistics (75 points)
Ⅰ. Please define the following 5 terms (20 points, 4 for each)
1. Arbitrariness at the syntactic level
2. Emotive function of language
3. Computational linguistics
4. Minimal pairs (in phonology)
5. Interlanguage
Ⅱ. Please discuss briefly the following 4 topics (about 100 words on each topic). (20 points, 5 for each)
1. Why is competence and performance an important distinction in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them?
2. Requirements of a good test.
3. Theory of the illocutionary act.
4. How does Halliday relate the functions performed by language to its structures or systems?
Ⅲ. Please write a 150-word essay on each of the following 2 topics. (30 points, 15 for each)
1. Make comments on advantages and disadvantages of the Integrated Theory of meaning.
2. What is special about Systemic-Functional linguistics?
Ⅳ. Please disambiguate each of the following 5 ambiguous sentences by means of tree-diagrams. (5 points, 1 for each)
1. We offered the poor free service.
2. He seemed nice to her.
3. A good pharmacist dispenses with accuracy.
4. Man is the student whom the teacher wanted to talk about to the principal.
5. Phone the man with the limp and wash the dog with the shampoo.
参考答案
Ⅰ.
1. Arbitrariness at the syntactic level:
考点提示：本题考查的是语言在句法层面上的任意性。因为语言本身具有任意性，分为语义关系上的任意性和句法层面上的任意性。
参考答案：By syntax we refer to the ways that sentences are constructed according to the grammar of arrangement. As we all know, the order of elements in a sentence follows certain rules, and there is a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence of clauses and the real happenings. In other words, syntax is less arbitrary than words.
2. Emotive function of language:
考点提示：本题考查的是语言的情感功能，它主要是用来表达人们的情感和态度。
参考答案：The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional states of an audience for or against someone or something. It is a means of getting rid of the nervous energy when people are under stress, for example, swear words, obscenities, involuntary verbal reactions to beautiful art or scenery, and conventional words/phrases: God, my, damn it, etc. It is similar to expressive function but the later can be totally without any implication of communication to others.
3. Computational linguistics:
考点提示：本题考查的是计算语言学的定义，这属于宏观语言学中的一个新领域。
参考答案： Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language (also known as “natural language, ” to distinguish it from computer languages).
4. Minimal pairs (in phonology):
考点提示：本题考查的是音系学中的最小对比对，是用来区别不同的音的。
参考答案：Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word, where other sounds do not. Minimal pairs test can be used to find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meanings. When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two forms are said to form a minimal pair, e.g. bill and pill are identical in form except for the initial consonants.
5. Interlanguage:
考点提示：本题考查的是中介语的定义，通常是指在第二语言学习过程中，介于目标语和母语之间的语言。
参考答案：The type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language often referred to as interlanguage. Interlanguage is often understood as a language system between the target and the learner's native language.
Ⅱ
1．考点提示：本题考查的是由乔姆斯基提出来的语言能力和语言运用的区别。
解题思路：美国的语言学家乔姆斯基提出了语言能力和语言运用的区别，语言能力是指语言使用者对语言系统规律知识的了解，而语言运用是指语言具体情况下实际使用语言。语言能力能让我们产生和理解无数多的句子，看出它们的非语法性和歧义，尽管有着如此完美的知识体系，但我们仍然会在实际语言运用中犯错误，这就是我们说的语言运用了。
参考答案：This fundamental distinction is discussed by American linguist N. Chomsky in his aspects of the theory of syntax.（1 point）A language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence, while performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situation. (1 point ) According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. (1 point ) Despite his perfect knowledge of his language, a speaker can still make mistakes in actual use. This imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors such as stress, anxiety, and embarrassment. Chomsky thinks that what linguists should study is the ideal speaker's competence, not his performance, and looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual. (2 points)
2．考点提示：本题考查的是对于一个好的测试来说，其要求是效度和可靠性。
解题思路：测试必须满足两个基本要求：效度和可靠性。有以下类型的效度：内容效度是指测试在多大程度上充分涵盖了教学大纲进行测试。建构效度是被测试时，其结果与一些外部标准相联系。表面效度是基于一个观察者的主观判断，这意味着测试是为了要测量的内容而出现的。可靠性可以被定义为一致性。如果连续两次相同的候选人或不同的人测试时产生相同或非常相似的结果，它被认为是有高度的可靠性。
参考答案：Lado proposed that a test must fulfill two basic requirements: validity and reliability.（1 point）Validity is the degree to which a test measures what it is mean to measure. There are the following kinds of validity: content validity refers to the extent to which the test adequately covers the syllabus area to be tested.（2 points）Construct validity is possessed by a test when its results correlate with some external criteria. Face validity is based on the subjective of judgment of an observer, meaning the test appears to be measuring what it intends to measure. Reliability can be defined as consistency. If a test produces the same or very similar results when given to the same candidates twice in succession or marked by different people, it is regarded as having high degree of reliability. (2 points)
3．考点提示：本题考查的是言行行为理论。说什么便是做什么，包含三个动作。
解题思路：行事行为理论是由奥斯汀提出来的，他认为在何种意义上说点什么就是做些什么。言内行为是说出单词、短语和从句所传达的含义给出有意义的声音。言外行为是表达说话者的意图的行为，言后行为是指说出的话产生的影响。以这种方式定义，言内行为是语言学家们一直在研究的。这就是声音、单词和句子的内在含义。而言后行为涉及许多心理和社会因素，我们所知甚少。所以实用主义者最感兴趣的言外行为，因为它表达了说话者的意图。因此，言语行为理论实际上是言外行为理论。
参考答案：The theory of the illocutionary act is proposed by Austin, which is in what sense to say something is to do something. In his opinion, there are three senses in which saying something may be understood as doing something.（2 points）A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases and clauses which conveys meaning by giving out meaningful sounds. (1 point) An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something. (1 point) A perlocutionary act is the effect of the utterance. (1 point) Defined in this way, the locutionary act is what linguists have been studying all along. That is how sounds, words and sentences are made, and what inherent meanings they have. The illocutionary act involves many psychological and social factors, of which we are still more or less in the dark. So pragmatists are most interested in the illocutionary act because it is identical with the speaker's intention. So the speech act theory is in fact the illocutionary act theory.（2 points）
4．考点提示：本题考查的是由韩礼德提出的结构功能系统。
解题思路：在韩礼德看来，结构是系统的外在表现形式。因此，结构看起来不是那么抽象，我们从句子表面就可以知道。通过研究语法的选区结构，假设上面的语义系统将成为可能。在选区结构，元素是公认的关于其功能的整体。因此，在“大老虎爬上树”中，只有元素，如“大老虎”而不是“这”或“大”当做元素被识别，因为它是整个序列在条款中所起作用，而在这个句子中，老虎是主语。紧随其后的是标签，显示该元素的特定功能。
参考答案：According to Halliday, structure is the outward form of the system, which lies behind the former. Structure , therefore, is less abstract, and closer to the “surface”. By studying the constituency structure of grammar, it is assumed that the semantic system above it would become plausible.（2 points）In the constituency structure, elements are recognized with reference to their functions in relation to the whole. Therefore, in “The huge tiger climbed a tree”, only elements like “the huge tiger” not “the” or “huge” could be recognized, since it is the whole sequence that plays a role in the clause, and in this sentence, the role is subject. This is the way of bracketing used in systemic-functional grammar. (2 points) This step is followed by labeling, which is to reveal the specific function of that element in relation to the whole. For example, by labeling “the huge tiger” a functional label:subject, we get to know the interpersonal function that element plays. (1 point)
Ⅲ
1．考点提示：本题考查的是整体理论，根据词义和句子结构我们可以得出句子含义，这个理论既存在优势也有弊端。
解题思路：我们可以根据一个句子中单词的含义和句子的结构来推出一个句子的含义。一个句子的意思取决于组成单词的含义和它们结合的方式，通常称为组合性的原则。卡茨和他的同事把他的原则纳入综合理论，他认为语义理论包括两个部分：一本字典和一组投影规则。前者提供了词的语法分类和语义信息；后者一起负责结合单词的含义。然而，这一理论存在问题。首先，语义标记区别不是很清楚。其次，在某些情况下，词的搭配不能占语法标记、语义标记或选择限制。最后像语义标记人类和男性是人为的元语言的元素，我们必须去解释这些语义标记本身的意义，否则没有任何意义。
参考答案：The meaning of a sentence is result of the meanings of the words used in it and its syntactic structure. The idea that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined is usually known as the principle of compositionality. (5 points)
J. Katz and his associates put his principle into their integrated theory, which holds that a semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of projection rules. The former provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of words; the latter is responsible for combining the meanings of words together. (5 points) However, there are problems in this theory. First, the distinction between semantic marker and distinguisher is not very clear. Second, there are cases in which the collocation of words cannot be accounted for by grammatical markers, semantics markers or selection restrictions. Finally the semantic markers like human and male are elements of an artificial meta-language. One must go on to explain the meaning of these semantic markers themselves, otherwise it means nothing. (5 points)
2．考点提示：本题考查的是韩礼德的系统功能学，包括系统语法和功能语法。
解题思路：韩礼德发展的思想源于伦敦学派中弗斯的理论。它是一种面向功能语言学的方法，由两部分组成：系统语法和功能语法。两个分离的部分语言理论是一个完整的框架。系统性语法旨在解释内部关系网络语言作为一个系统，或意义潜能，这个网络由语言的子系统用户做出选择。功能语法的目的是揭示语言是一种社会交往的手段，基于语言系统的位置和形式，使它不可分地取决于它们所服务的用户或功能。系统语法基于两个事实：
(1)语言用户实际上是选择系统，试图实现不同的语义功能的社会交互；(2)语言同人的社会活动有着不可分割的联系。因此，它使实际使用的语言作为研究对象，反对乔姆斯基的TG语法，将理想的说话者的语言能力作为研究对象。
参考答案：Halliday has developed the ideas stemming from Firth's theories in the London School. His systemic-functional grammar is a sociolinguistically oriented functional linguistic approach, which has two components: systemic grammar and functional grammar.（5 points）They are two separable parts for an integral framework of linguistic theory. Systemic grammar aims to explain the internal relations in language as a system of network, or meaning potential and this network consists of subsystems from which language users make choice. Functional grammar aims to reveal that language is a means of social interaction, based on the position that language system and the forms that make it up are inseparably determined by the users or functions they serve.（5 points）Systemic-function grammar is based on two facts: (1) language users are actually making choices of systems and trying to realize different semantic functions in social interaction;and (2) language is inseparably from social activities of man. Thus, it makes actual uses of language as the object of study, in opposition to Chomsky's TG grammar that makes the ideal speaker's linguistic competence as the object of study.（5 points）
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